Somalia And US Essays - Military Operations Other Than War, Peace

Resistance And Electrical Conductivity Environmental Sciences Essay

Opposition And Electrical Conductivity Environmental Sciences Essay Electrical flows are routinely bridled and transmitted by means of interconnected wires. The motivation behind this exploration is to distinguish factors usually answerable for influencing the opposition of flow, or stream of power, over a wire in an electrical circuit. A few variables should be distinguished and explored before experimentation. A fundamental comprehension of electrical circuits and obstruction is required for fruitful culmination of this venture. So as to make an electric circuit, a way should be built to permit electrons to constantly move, or stream, over a medium. The development of electrons is known as the current. The medium used to lead the electron move is known as a conductor. The distinction or potential contrast in electrical charges in the circuit is called voltage. Voltage is the proportion of the power between two pots. At the point when electrons travel through conductors they frequently experience rubbing which is called opposition. Similarly as with voltage, opposition is an estimation between to focuses and doesn't have significance outside of those two focuses. A channel with low obstruction is viewed as a decent transmitter and a conveyor with high opposition is viewed as a terrible conduit (http://science.howstuffworks.com/electricity.htm). Since copper particles have just a single electron in their external shell they will in general offer electrons effectively and permit an electrical charge to travel through them with little obstruction. As a result of these properties copper is a decent channel (http://www.webelements.com). Free electrons will in general travel through conductors with some level of erosion, or restriction to movement. This restriction to movement is all the more appropriately called obstruction. The measure of current in a circuit relies upon the measure of voltage accessible to spur the electrons, and furthermore the measure of obstruction in the circuit to restrict electron stream. Much the same as voltage, obstruction is an amount relative between two focuses. Consequently, the amounts of voltage and opposition are frequently expressed as being between or across two focuses in a circuit. Opposition is the property of a conveyor that hinders or confines the progression of power through it. Great conductors are related with low opposition and high vitality transference. Poor conveyors are related with low flow and higher opposition (http://science.howstuffworks.com/electricity.htm). Theory: The theory of this investigation is: the protection from an electrical flow should increment corresponding to the length of the conveyor. The opposition ought to be relatively higher for the 60cm length of wire than it is for a 10cm length of wire. Earlier research shows that the obstruction of the 60cm length ought to be multiple times that of the 10cm length. Prior investigations demonstrate that opposition will increment with length since obstruction is corresponding to length (www.123HelpMe.com/view.asp?id=120694). Undertaking Plan/Problem Statement Does the length of the conduit influence the progression of power? On the off chance that it does, how? Protection from an electrical flow should increment with respect to the length of the transmitter. The opposition ought to be extensively higher for the 60cm length than it is for the 10cm length. Hypothetically the obstruction for the 60cm length ought to be multiple times that of the 10cm length. The purpose behind this was clarified before. Protections are simply included in an arrangement circuit so having a long length of wire will simply be equivalent to having 2 lengths of wire a large portion of the size. Obstruction will increment with length. Obstruction is corresponding to length (www.123HelpMe.com/view.asp?id=120694). The scientific recipe for the connection between two focuses, as portrayed by Ohms Law, being straightforwardly relative to the voltage over the focuses and contrarily corresponding to the opposition between them is communicated scientifically as: (http:// science.howstuffworks.com/electricity.htm). Or on the other hand graphically as: (http://science.howstuffworks.com/electricity.htm). This science task will be utilized to test the length of a grouping of wires to decide how normal for length influences electrical conductivity. The electrons bounce from particle to iota in the metal in light of the electric field in the circuit (http://science.howstuffworks.com/electricity.htm). Research discloses to us that copper has more free electrons than numerous different materials and should lead power generally openly (http://www.webelements.com/). The needy variable for this undertaking is the measure of opposition estimated. The free factor is the length of the copper wire used to direct the electrical charge. The controlled factors for this undertaking are consistent room temperature, steady mugginess, consistent circuit, and a consistent charge from a DC power pack. The task plan is to test the current/obstruction over various length of wires. This venture is pertinent to true applications supposing that individuals have a superior comprehension of the components that influence power conduction, upgrade can be made in power transmission to decrease loss of charge and increment safeguarding of electrical vitality. Writing Review/Other Experiments Research has indicated the conductivity of specific materials is: Cu copper use 2.15 nãžâ ©m 15.43 nãžâ ©m 16.78 nãžâ ©m 17.12 nãžâ ©m 17.25 nãžâ ©m CRC (10-8â ãžâ ©m) 0.215 1.543 1.678 1.712 1.725 LNG (10-8â ãžâ ©m) 1.678 WEL (10-8â ãžâ ©m) (293 K-298 K) 1.7 (http://www.webelements.com/) Yamaguchi, T., Matsuoka, T., Koda, S. (2007). A hypothetical report on the recurrence subordinate electric conductivity of electrolyte solutions. Journal of Chemical Physics,â 127(23), 234501. doi:10.1063/1.2806289. The tolerant on the recurrence subordinate electric accessory of electrolyte arrangements proposed beat by Yamaguchi et al. [J. Chem. Phys. 127, 234501 (2007)] is subsidiary to arbor the hydrodynamic rotation in the midst of particles. The tolerant is initiated to the fluid bandage of NaCl and the digestion insistence of the accessory concurs capable with that calculated by tests. The reduction in the electric accessory is acknowledgment into the commitments of particle support managing at acclimatized separations. The widely inclusive ionic environment assumes an on high job at the absorption as low as 0.01 mol/kg, tolerating the increase of the complement particle support amphitheater is significant at 1 mol/kg. The acclimatized basal of cation is harrowed to be a contracting action of osmosis as is empiric in tests. How Electricity Works, recovered from http://science.howstuffworks.com/electricity.htm The basal of electrons moving in a projections is proclaimed the current, and its abstinent in amps. The power charge the electron exchanging is proclaimed the voltage and is abstinent in volts. The aggregated of power devoured were estimated in watts. Examination the Factors That Affect Resistance of a Conductor. (21 Jul 2010) Retrieved from: (http://www.123HelpMe.com/view.asp?id=120694) The components that influence the transmission of power are: length of the wire-the more noteworthy the separation over the medium is the more extended the electrons need to go through and delivering a higher chance of contacts with different electrons; material utilized the more firmly stuffed the conveyor (the closer the electrons are) the more troublesome it is for electrons to travel through the conduit thus more crashes between particles, accordingly offering ascend to a more prominent obstruction; temperature-in the event that the temperature of the link is raised, at that point the iotas in the link will start to throb and that will enlarge the complete number of effects in the midst of particles subsequently rising the opposition; cross-sectional zone if the wires thickness is expanded the obstruction will diminish, this is on the grounds that the electrons will have more space to move and that will make the likelihood of an impact with another electron is more uncertain. Exploratory Design Steps/Sequence of Events This test set up ought to have the option to evaluate the length of a wire for uniqueness in opposition of wire. Wires of contrasting lengths will be tried to confirm that obstruction is corresponding to length. This will require testing various lengths of copper wire. For the trial grouped wires from 10 cm to 60 cm will be tried utilizing a current, a voltmeter and ammeter. The undertaking will require an electrical circuit to test the opposition of a wire and a contraption to associate contrasting areas of wire. To measure the obstruction of the wire conveyor by methods for Ohms Law, both an ammeter and a voltmeter will be utilized to check the electrical flow. To accomplish a normal, the analysis will be directed twice and afterward found the middle value of for increasingly exact outcomes. The force from the force source will be set at a current of 0.22 amps. Indistinguishable examination steps will be used for wires of the accompanying lengths: 10 cm, 20 cm, 30 cm, 40 cm, 50 cm, and 60 cm. The wire will be connected to the circuit in progression so the present streams legitimately through it. Force will be provided by a DC power pack that encourages simple and precise alterations of intensity. Steps: Get ready circuit Append segment of wire to be tried to circuit Go along with one finish of the ammeter to one finish of the open circuit to ensure that the entire current will be determined. Check the polarization of the ammeters closes that are associated with the circuit. Turn on the force flexibly and increment the current to 0.22. Check the perusing from the voltmeter. Check the perusing from the ammeter. Connect the 10 cm length of the copper wire to the circuit. Apply 0.22 current to the circuit from the force source. Check the perusing from the voltmeter. Record the perusing from the voltmeter. Check the perusing from the ammeter. Record the perusing from the ammeter. Figure obstruction. Rehash stages 8-14 with 10cm, 20cm, 30cm, 40cm, 50cm, and 60cm len

Initial Guide for Using Big Data in Sales

Initial Guide for Using Big Data in Sales Sales â€" the exchange of goods and services for money or other consideration, is the basis of any business. How do businesses sell products? There are multiple methods (distinguished by sales channel, consumer type and other factors), which include direct sales, agency-based sales, door-to-door sales, electronic sales, B2B sales, B2C sales, and more. Underlying all of these methods is the necessity of knowing who to sell to, what to sell to them, when to sell to them, and where to sell to them. Why a buyer decides to make a purchase is critical to answering these questions that aid in the process of making sale. In sum, the more information a salesperson and/or firm have about a customer or a customer segment, the greater the ability they will have to tailor a sales strategy that impels a consumer to buy the good/service in question.Big Data, which has evolved from business trending topic, to a widely acknowledged (though inconsistently adopted) strategic orientation across industri es, is all about providing the right kind of information to firms, departments and professionals. As such, Big Data holds tremendous potential for augmenting sales processes and procedures, and ultimately, increasing a firm’s bottom line. Sales departments across the country have long realized the importance of data-driven approaches to sales â€" many firms use customer relationship management systems (CRMs) to aggregate, filter and analyze its interactions with leads. However, Big Data analytics takes CRM data and tools to the next level, with tremendous benefits for firms, which adopt and implement them properly. © Shutterstock.com | a-imageIn this article, we will cover 1) the benefits of enhancing sales with Big Data’s tools and techniques; 2) sales forecasting and target marketing using predictive analytics; 3) gathering lead intelligence and lead scoring; 4) converting leads to sales through customized sales experiences; 5) increasing lifetime customer value; and 6) better salesforce management.  BENEFITS OF ENHANCING SALES WITH BIG DATA TOOLSBig Data â€" both, (1) the volume, variety, and variety of digital and digitizable data from internal operations and external sources, and (2) the ever-evolving set of tools, techniques and technologies designed to aggregate, store, filter, and analyze said data, can yield rich insights about all aspects of a business. This includes a firm’s consumer base, product line, and distribution chain, all of which the firm can leverage to imbue its products with enough perceived and actual value to entice customers to buy. The firm can use these insight s to manage marketing resources more efficiently, by helping marketing departments identify and target the most profitable potential customer segments, funneling them to the sales force. Further, Big Data-gleaned insights can be used to manage individual and salesforce performance, adjusting approaches where necessary to meet or exceed Key Performance Indicators (KPIs).To harness Big Data requires investments in hardware/software and personnel beyond the deployment of a CRM. For Big Data includes data from every operational aspect of the business â€" from accounting to manufacturing to human resources. Big Data also necessitates the hire, insourcing or outsourcing of both IT personnel skilled in the processing and storage of large volumes and varieties of data in real-time and near-real-time; and data scientists trained in both filtering and analyzing the data, and sharing actionable insights with key actors across the firm. Integrating Big Data management systems with legacy CRMs m ay require additional outside resources. However, integrating and leveraging Big Data into a sales operation successfully requires vision, buy-in from the top, and, ultimately, firm-wide adoption of Big data management tools and techniques.[slideshare id=14869240doc=bigdatabigsalesf1-121024113828-phpapp02w=640h=330]SALES FORECASTING WITH PREDICTIVE ANALYTICSPredictive analytics â€" a powerful toolset of forecasting techniques, allows firms to determine sales revenue goals, and the probability of achieving them in real-time. By continually measuring performance and adjusting tactics where there are deficits, increases a firm’s probability of achieving and surpassing those goals.Predictive analytics allows a firm’s data scientists to create mathematical models of consumer behavior based on historical data; such sales data might include prior purchase history, customer acquisition costs, advertising/marketing messages received by the consumer, and other similarly relevant data. The se models can then be used to predict, within a particular degree of certainty, the probability of the purchase behavior changing or remaining the same. Depending on the capabilities of the firm’s Big Data architecture and personnel, this can be performed in real-time or near-real-time, allowing sales managers and sales personnel to continuously revise and adjust their selling strategies to achieve sales targets.Models can also be built around most any other type of sales question, providing sales personnel further insights on approaching clients. These models need not be built with purely internal data. They can be built with external data, or with a combination of both. Building models with external data can be particularly helpful for firms when forecasting the effects of external and/or global events on a firm’s sales. For example, a two hundred year firm with advance notice of a hurricane, may examine how well they have historically performed in the aftermath of a hurricane , as well as how similar firms/competitors have fared. This can assist in accurate projections that benefit not only the firm’s sales personnel, but also stakeholders, such as shareholders, as well.Big Data management systems are designed to deal with greater volumes of data and greater varieties of data types than traditional CRMs. With a strong data science team, and robust management systems, the increased data can be harnessed for greater consumer analysis.TARGET MARKETING, LEAD INTELLIGENCE, AND SCORINGBig Data management systems are designed to deal with greater volumes of data and greater varieties of data types than traditional CRMs. With a strong data science team, and robust management systems, the increased data can be harnessed for an improved analysis of consumer trends.Data mining enables firms to develop effective target marketing strategies, especially in B2C sales. By aggregating historical internal consumer data, and external data from a variety of sources, firms can target and qualify consumer leads before the first marketing dollar is spent. Using this data, firms can forecast a customers probable purchase behavior with a high degree of accuracy. This allows sales directors to identify and refine key target segments and/or leads, inform the marketing strategies most effective in reaching them, and determine the strategies that will convert them from leads to customers.Marketers can accomplish these goals through message testing, promotional strategies, and even product mixes. Loyalty programs provide great test beds for marketers, who can glean actionable insights into purchase behavior, purchase behavior, and price sensitivity, among other crucial factors. When a firm’s marketing efforts are optimized, the sales team, ideally, is exerting minimal effort on a large pool of interested customers. They can then spend their time on harder-to-reach, and perhaps more lucrative customers.In B2B sales, the universe of possible leads is smaller, and the purchases are also larger in absolute dollars. Further, the ultimate decision maker in purchase decision is often unclear initially; and/or, multiple individuals make decisions jointly. Accordingly, customer acquisition costs are often higher; therefore, sales departments must ensure they are not burning through capital on failed conversions. Big Data is a great source of lead intelligence; whereas historically, lead intelligence might have consisted of industry reports, and firm-lead interactions (calls and visits), lead intelligence in the era of Big Data can include everything from social network usage of purchasing directors to their behavior on the firm’s website. Lead scoring is used to rank leads based on their potential value; sales departments can then allot the appropriate amount of time, effort, and marketing/sales dollars towards the most highly ranked leads.  SALES CONVERSION THROUGH CUSTOMIZED SALES EXPERIENCESBig Data not only provides sales personnel with insights about how to approach consumers/leads; when properly managed, it provides them with the capability to provide consumers with personalized sales experiences. CRMs already aggregate data; Big Data management systems allow a greater volume and variety of data to be integrated in real-time, and near-real-time. Using this information allows salespeople to develop a more complete view of each consumer and conduct direct sales in a highly personal manner. It allows digital marketing/sales teams to offer personalized recommendations drawing on the individual’s complete history with the firm (everything from customer service calls to office visits to online community activity), as well as the opportunity to use this information to upsell. Additionally, it gives cold callers a wealth of information with which to start a conversation. Personalization deepens brand engagement. Highly engaged customers are likely to be repeat customers.Of course, even the largest multinational firms l ack the manpower to manually construct personalized sales experiences for every single consumer it touches. Big Data’s technologies include automated personalization systems that funnel digital consumer data into personal electronic communications (including, but not limited to emails, social media messages, and landing pages) as soon as the consumer fulfills certain criteria (such as registering on the firm’s website). Further, these tools allow for consistent messaging across all channels â€" whether direct mail, text messages, or robo calls. Though it is a mass marketing approach, it creates the appearance of a personal touch, which many consumers find engaging.  INCREASING LIFETIME CUSTOMER VALUEBeyond deeper brand engagement through customized sales experiences Big Data can yield, Big Data can increase lifetime customer value in a variety of ways. It can provide the firm with greater account management capabilities, and allow the firm to design products with greater perceiv ed or actual value, as well as allow it to optimize its online and offline sales channels for maximum conversions.Big Data allows for greater continuity in account management, which is especially important in direct B2B sales. Prior to the advent of Big Data, a salesman or account manager, having developed client relationships, might have pertinent client information, such as preferences and personal idiosyncrasies, that could make it difficult for other sales personnel to manage that relationship. If that employee were out sick, the client relationship might suffer. If that employee left the firm, clients might walk out the door with him. CRMs allow client information to be shared across the firm, reducing (though not entirely eliminating) organizational dependency on individual sales personnel.Big Data can also help the firm understand the psychology of its average consumer better, which can yield insights into new products, packaging, promotional opportunities, and more. Some of these insights are received by sales personnel, but for a variety of reasons, may not be shared outside of the sales department. A proper implementation of Big Data management systems (IT and firm-wide processes) ensures that no matter where consumer insights land â€" whether in accounts payable, customer service, sales, or manufacturing, they are routed to the right organizational entity, to be harnessed.It is easy to see how Big Data insights might help an online vendor optimize its landing page for maximum conversion. The vendor can test direct marketing copy, landing page graphics, However, it can also help the vendor optimize the off-page (such as online ads) and offline (such as direct mail or event marketing) factors that might drive traffic to the site as well. Moreover, it allows managers and executives to design physical sales locations that will most likely impel the greatest number of consumers to purchase.Consider the case of Walmart. Walmart took a wealth of consumer d ata gleaned from every brand touch-point â€" from point-of-sale transactions to retail sales history, and used this information to inform the design of their physical retail locations to drive sales. Walmart stores a record of every item a customer buys for two years in its data centers, and uses this historical data to fuel predictive distribution and purchasing models to forecast consumer behavior. This information in turn helps fuels its inventory management systems (as do real-time/near-real-time inventory reports), which allow for an optimal volume of goods. The store locations themselves are chosen for their location along an optimal distribution network. They are also designed to maximize customer value during the shopping experience. The Crestview, Florida store, for example, aligned the most frequently visited departments, increased signage, and added a technology testing area, during a 2010 redesign, allowing for a quicker shopping experience. The Washington, DC H Street l ocation, opened in 2013, eschewed the traditional grey-blue building, which is at odds with a thriving urban locale, for a massive brick building with multiple retail tenants and even residential apartments for rent.BETTER SALESFORCE MANAGEMENTBig Data allows firms to better manage their salesforce through people analytics â€" the application of predictive analytics to human resources. Not every individual is cut out to be a salesman, and people analytics can help an HR department “predict” the most successful candidates for openings, through the development of mathematical models of the traits of existing star performers. Recruitment software can then mine through resume, social media, and background data, as well as firm-produced skills and psychological tests, apply these variables through the models, and provide quantitative assessments of each candidate. External data mining can also help a firm identify (and then recruit) talent, even before they have applied for an openin g. Using these methods can help a firm reduce talent acquisition costs and turnover in the sales department, and acquire revenue-producing personnel.Big Data’s management tools and technologies can also help managers monitor their salesforces â€" crucial as sales personnel are often field staff. People analytics can help managers determine the cause of a staff member’s missed numbers, whether they are encountering unforeseen challenges, require additional training, or are slacking off.Finally, there is often a disconnect between a firm’s field sales staff and marketing department. No matter how sophisticated the method of predicting consumer behavior, the firm may be wrong. It might be a marketing message that did not quite land. Or a product might not satisfy the need which the firm intended. Those who hear it first are a firm’s salesforce; they must also quickly correct a firm’s mistaken assumptions in the mind of the consumer. The pragmatic knowledge of what works and w hat doesn’t is invaluable to the firm but often goes ignored, to the resentment of sales professionals. These insights can be easily shared firm-wide with Big Data tools, but when firm’s take them seriously and harness them in, say, new product development or advertising, it can have a tremendous morale-boosting effect. Sales personnel, now seeing their insights in action, may feel more connected to the firm and enthusiastic about its brand promise; and the more motivated the salesforce, the more likely it is to achieve its sales goals.

The Great Depression And Dust Bowl - 2250 Words

In the decades leading up to the 1920s, industry in America boomed. Not only were monopolies created but mass production of many goods was the source of an economic boom. During the 1920s the economic boom led to some of the best times in history. However, later in the decade, devastation came in the form of the Great Depression and Dust Bowl. These two factors left a sour taste in the mouthes of Americans as they moved into the thirties. The drastic difference between the economic high and low of the 1920s are due to a combination of the economic boom at the beginning of the decade and the Great Depression at the end, with numerous factors in between these two bookend events. During the best of the decade there was economic boom,†¦show more content†¦Vertical Integration is the controlling of all parts of the manufacturing process, from obtaining raw materials to sale of the final product. This allowed for many corporations to completely run this industry and contro l the market. Hence, by 1890, things were out of hand and thus the Sherman Anti-Trust Act was implemented. This act outlawed trusts and any other monopolies in order for their to be more competition and less fixed price enterprises (Boyer). The most important long term effect that the period of Robber Barons vs Captains of Industry had was its creation of an economic boom and a bull market that lasted a long time. Not only were there economic improvements but also social. The impact of war on the home front left room for women to establish themselves in the work place and for other social reforms to take place. The 1920s were just a time of great economic success, there were also very positive social movements too. The main social movement that took place was the Harlem Renaissance. The Harlem Renaissance was a time of increased African American literature and art that formed a movement. This movement, the Harlem Renaissance, came from the Harlem areas of New York City and was the first cultural specific movement in this era. Due to the mass migration to the urban cities of the northeast from 1914-1918, many blacks began to establish themselves in certain areas, such as Harlem. Those

Developing Professional Practice Essay - 2282 Words

Developing Professional Practice 1. Professionalism The Oxford English Dictionary states the following meanings of the word ‘professional’: 1. ‘a person engaged or qualified in a profession’ 2. ‘a person competent or skilled in a particular activity’ In other words, an HR professional needs to have the necessary ability, knowledge and skills in the field of people management. However, that is not enough. One also has to be able to apply them in a consistent manner, i.e. one has to be professional at all times, at the same, high, level. This means that it is important for a professional to continue to develop his/her competence, taking into consideration the continuously changing environment and demands. The CIPD has†¦show more content†¦The ‘Thinking Performer’ also challenges what (s)he sees/does and thinks for him/her-self instead of blindly following orders. The situation may have changed which affects the usual way things are being done or why they are needed. (S)he looks beyond the results to why they are required and tries to make a positive difference to the organisation. Every organisation is a living organism and the HR professional should be a (pro)-active member rather than a follower. In the HR Professional Map this is represented by required behaviour such as ‘curious’, ‘courage to challenge’ and ‘personally credible’. At the same time, and maybe even more importantly, the ‘Thinking Performer’ is also committed to self-development and has an intrinsic desire to grow. Not just for him/her-self, but also because (s)he recognises that the environment around the organisation and the organisation itself changes continuously, which poses different demands on the HR professional. In order to remain relevant as a professional and to continue to add true value to the organisation (s)he will have to identify what new skills and knowledge are needed and how to acquire those. With the ever increasing pace of change in the world, today’s market leader can be out of business tomorrow if the organisation fails to adapt to the changes around it. One of the key assets of each organisation is its human capital, i.e. the knowledge, skills and abilities of its staff. If the organisation is to adapt,Show MoreRelatedDeveloping Professional Practice3132 Words   |  13 Pagesapplicable) | |Qualification Title: Human Resources Diploma - CIPD Level 5-DHRM | |Unit Title(s): Developing Professional Practice | |Unit Code(s): 5DPP Read MoreDeveloping Professional Practice2553 Words   |  11 Pagesï » ¿Developing Professional Practice Introduction and terms of reference This report will demonstrate my understanding of what is required to be an effective and efficient HR professional and apply CPD techniques to construct, implement and review a personal development plan. 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The HR profession Map captures what successful and effective HR people do and deliver across every aspect and specialism of the profession, and sets out the required activities, behaviour and knowledge. It covers 10 professional areas and 8 behaviours, set out in 4 bands of competence. The Map covers every level of the HR profession: Band 1 being theRead MoreDeveloping Professional Practice Essay3601 Words   |  15 PagesREF: 5DPP I01001 INTERMEDIATE CERTIFICATE IN HRM UNIT: 5DPP – DEVELOPING PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE TUTOR: CAROLYN HAYWARD SUBMISSION DATE: 23rd November 2011 STUDENT: JAYNE WILLIAMS ------------------------------------------------- Professionalism in HR ------------------------------------------------- Question 1 ------------------------------------------------- The thought of professionalism conjures up many ideas, and possibly pre-conceived judgements. These will not alwaysRead MoreDeveloping Professional Practice in Hrd1919 Words   |  8 Pages3. 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Analysis Network Free Essays

string(45) " the destination irrespective of each other\." CIRCUIT SWITCHING AND PACKET SWITCHING 1) INTRODUCTION Telecommunication networks carry information signals among entities, which are geographically for apart. The communication switching system enables universal connectivity. Switches can be valuable asset to networking[1]. We will write a custom essay sample on Analysis Network or any similar topic only for you Order Now Overall, they can increase the capacity and speed of our network. Every time in computer network we access the internet or another   computer network outside our immediate location, our messages are sent through a maze of transmission media and connection devices. The mechanism for moving information between different computer network and network segment is called switching in computer network[2]. Figure 1: Switched network Long distance transmission is typically done over a network of switched nodes. Nodes not concerned with content of data. A collection of nodes and connections is a communications network. Data routed by being switched from node to node. Nodes may connect to other nodes only, or to stations and other nodes. Node to node links usually multiplexed. However, switching should not be seen as a cure-all for network issues. There are two different switching technologies which are: 1) Circuit switching and 2) Packet switching. 1. Circuit Switching Circuit switching was the first switching technique have been used in communication network. This is due to easy to carry analog signals. Circuit switching  network establishes a fixed bandwidth channel between nodes before the users may communicate, as if the nodes were physically connected with an electrical circuit. The bit delay is constant during the connection, as opposed to packet switching, where packet queues may cause varying delay. In circuit switching, the transmission medium is typically divided into channels using Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM), Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), or Code Division Multiplexing (CDM). A circuit is a string of concatenated channels from the source to the destination that carries an information flow. To establish the circuits, a signaling mechanism is used. This signaling only carriers control information, and it is considered an overhead. Since all decisions are taken by the signaling process, the signaling mechanism is the most complex part in circuit switching. Each circuit cannot be used by other callers until the circuit is released and a new connection is set up. Even if no communication is taking place in a dedicated circuit then, that channel still remains unavailable to other users. Channels that are available for new calls to be set up are said to be idle. Telephone network is example of circuit switching system. Virtual circuit switching is a packet switching technology that may emulate circuit switching, in the sense that the connection is established before any packets are transferred, and that packets are delivered in order. Unlike with packet switched networks, we cannot just send a ‘packet’ to the destination. We need to establish and later terminate the connection. We need to have some way of transmitting control information, we can either do this in band that the same channel we use for data or out of band which is on a seperate dedicated channel. Phone networks used in band signaling a while ago we could control switching and other functionality by playing tones into the telephone. Today in band signaling is considered unsecure and is not used except for compability with old systems[3]. 2. Packet Switching Packet switching  is a communications paradigm in which packets are routed between nodes over data links shared with other traffic. In packet-based networks, the message gets broken into small data packets. These packets are sent out from the computer and they travel around the network seeking out the most efficient route to travel as circuit become available. This does not necessarily mean that they seek out the shortest route. Each packet may go different route from the others. Each packet contains a â€Å"header† with information necessary for routing the packet from source to destination. The header address also describes the sequences for reassembly at the destination computer so that the packets are put back into the correct order. Each packet in a data stream is independent. To be able to understand packet-switching, we need to know what a  packet  is. The  Internet Protocol (IP), just like many other  protocols, breaks data into chunks and wraps the chunks into structures called packets. Each packet contains, along with the data load, information about the IP address of the source and the destination nodes, sequence numbers and some other control information. A packet can also be called a segment or datagram. Once they reach their destination, the packets are reassembled to make up the original data again. It is therefore obvious that, to transmit data in packets, it has to be digital data. The packet switching can broadly be divided into two main categories, first is the virtual circuit approach and other is the datagram approach. In the virtual circuit approach to packet switching, the relationship between all packets belonging to the message or a session is preserved. A single route is chosen between the sender and the receiver at beginning of the session. When the data are sent, all packets of transmission travel one after another along that route. The wide area networks use the virtual circuit approach to the packet switching. The virtual circuit approach needs a call setup for establishing a virtual circuit between the source and destination. A call teardown deletes virtual circuit. After the setup, routing takes place based on the identifier known as the virtual circuit identifier. This approach can be used in the WANs, frame relay and an ATM. In the other approach of packet switching that is the datagram approach, each packet is treated independently of all others. Even if one packet is just a piece of a multi-packet transmission, the network treats it as though it is existed alone. Packets in this approach are known as the datagram. The internet has chosen datagram approach to switching in the network layer. It uses the universal addresses defined in network layer to route packets from the source to destination. In  packet-switching, the packets are sent towards the destination irrespective of each other. You read "Analysis Network" in category "Papers" Each packet has to find its own route to the destination. There is no predetermined path; the decision as to which node to hop to in the next step is taken only when a node is reached. Each packet finds its way using the information it carries, such as the source and destination IP addresses[4]. 2) HISTORY OF CIRCUIT SWITCHING AND PACKET SWITCHING * Evolution of Circuit Switching Switches are used to build transmission path between telephone set on a flexible basis. Without switches, each telephone set would require a direct, dedicated circuit to every other telephone set in order to be able to communicate. This is a full-mesh physical topology network. Such a full mesh network clearly is resource-intensive, impractical and even impossible, as early experience proved. Circuit Switching were developed for voice communications. Contemporary circuit switches provide continuous access to logical channels over high-capacity physical circuits for the duration of the conversation. In January 1878, the first telephone switch went into operation in New Haven Connecticut. Switching technology had advanced drastically over the intervening decades, yet the basic function had remained the same: interconnect users of telephones by creating circuits between them. Every telephone has a line, or circuit, that connects physically to a telephone switch. In the simple case of both the person making the call and the person being called are connected to the same switch, the caller dials the number of the desired person, the switch checks to see if the line is available, and if it is, the two lines are interconnected by the switch. The connection is maintained until one person hangs up his or her telephone, at which time the switch terminates the connection, freeing both lines for other calls. Three characteristics of this type of switching, called â€Å"circuit switching,† are important. First, before the two parties can talk the circuit between them has to be created, and it takes time for a switch to check if a connection can be made and then to make the connection. Second, when a connection has been made, it creates a dedicated connection. No other party can reach either party of a dedicated connection until that connection has ended. Three, since switches are very expensive one accounting policy telephone companies implemented to recover their investment was to institute a minimum charge for every telephone call, generally three minutes. For voice calls that lasted many minutes, a minimum charge did not represent a problem. But communications between computers often last less than seconds, much less minutes. It was difficult to image how circuit switching could work efficiently for computer communications when such a system took minutes to make a connection, created dedicated connections so only one person, or party, could be in connection with another party, and had a prohibitive cost structure. Although these issues were generally understood before the experiments of Roberts and Marill in 1965, they were once again strongly confirmed. The experiments also made it abundantly clear that the problems confronting computer communications were not only with the circuit-switching architecture of the telephone system. Host operating system software of the day assumed there was only one Host and all connecting devices were as if â€Å"slaves. † Hosts were not designed to recognize or interact with peer-level computers; the concept of peer-level computing did not yet exist. Thus, in interconnecting two computers, one had to be master and one slave. The problem only became worse if more than two computers wanted to interconnect and communicate. Nevertheless, the problem of Host software was considered to be solvable if a suitable communication system could be designed and made to work. Fortunately, an inquisitive innovative scientist, Paul Baran, had already explored the problems of circuit switching beginning in 1959. By 1962, he had made his concept of a message-based communication system publicly known. Independently, in 1965, an English scientist, Donald Davies reached the same conclusions as had Baran and would coin its name: packet switching. * Evolution of Packet Switching The concept of packet switching had two independent beginnings, with Paul Baran and Donald Davies. Leonard Kleinrock conducted early research and authored a book in 1961 in the related field of digital message switching without explicitly using the concept of packets and also later played a leading role in building and management of the world’s first packet switched network, namely the ARPANET. Baran developed the concept of packet switching during his research for the US Air Force into survivable communications networks, first published in 1962, and then including and expanding somewhat within a series of eleven papers titled â€Å"On distributed communications† in 1964. Baran’s earlier paper described a general architecture for a large-scale, distributed survivable communication network. His paper focused on three key ideas: 1) the use of a decentralized network with multiple paths between any two points, 2) dividing complete user messages into what he called message blocks (packets), and 3) delivery of this message by store and forward switching. Baran’s study paved the way for Robert Taylor and J. C. R. Licklider, both wide-area network evangelists working at the Information Processing Technology Office, and it also helped influence Lawrence Roberts to adopt the technology when Taylor put him in charge of development of the ARPANET. Baran’s packet switching work similar to the research performed independently by Donald Davies at the National Physical Laboratory, UK. In 1965, Davies developed the concept of packet switched networks and proposed development of a U. K. wide network. He gave a talk on the proposal in 1966, after which a person from Ministry of Defense told him about Baran’s work. At the 1967 ACM Symposium on operating system principles, Davies and Robert bringing the two groups together. Interestingly, Davies had be chosen some of the same parameters for his original network design as Baran, such as a packet size of 1024 bits. Roberts and the ARPANET team took the name â€Å"packet switching† itself from Davies work. In 1970, Davies helped build a packet switched network called Mark I to serve the NPL in the UK. It was replaced with the Mark II in 1973, and remained in operation until 1986, influencing other packet communications research in UK and Europe[5]. 3) COMPARISON BETWEEN CIRCUIT AND PACKET SWITCHING Circuit Switching: In circuit switching a message path or data communication path or channel or circuit is dedicated to an entire message block during the process of message transmission. The entire bandwidth is dedicated to the said message as it were, and before any data transmission can take place circuit initialisation and setup has to be done to enable or determine the avalaibility of the link as in trying to make a call using the telephon line for voice messaging or even dial-up procedure where you need to establsih that the line is free for use in the first place; and then have the line engaged all through your time of use. All the message travel through the same path and keep the link engaged all the while when the block of message is been relayed or transmitted. In circuit switching, whole of the data travels along a single dedicated path between the two terminals whereas in datagram switching data is divided into packets and each of these packets are treated indepently and travel along different paths, source and destination being the same. Circuit switching concept is used in Telephony networks where a dedicated line is assigned to particular connection, the connection in this case is permanent during the connection. Considerable amount of bandwidth is wasted in this process and at a time only one way communication is possible. Circuit switching is done at physical layer whereas datagram switching is generally done at network layer. Circuit switching requires the resources to be reserved before the transmission of data but datagram switching doesn’t require such reservation of resources. Advantages: 1. Fixed delays, because of the dedicated circuit – no interference and no sharing. 2. Guaranteed continous service, also because of the dedicated circuit. . Guaranted the full bandwidth for the duration of the call. Disadvantages: 1. Takes a relatively long time to set up the circuit. 2. Difficult to support variable data rates and is not efficient for burst traffic. The equipment may be unused for a lot of call, if no data is being sent the dedicated line still remains open. 3. During crisis or disaster, the network may become unstable or unavailable. 4. It was primarily developed for voice traffic rather than data traffic. Packet Switching: In packet switching the block of data is split into small units with each unit having a sequence number attached to it for orderly identification within a given message block and these different units are usaully sent across the available diffrent links or channels of data transmission from one end to the other end point where they arrvive at different times but have to be assembled together in the correct order at this location via the sequence numbers to get out the original message back without any data degredation occuring as a result of the different paths of transmissions from source to destination. Also no single data channel is dedicated to any given message block in the course of transmission as many units of different messages can be multiplexed and then get demultiplexed at their deffferent destinations correctly since there are codes to differentiate each unit of message, resulting to no conflict at all. Packet switching splits messages into small units and transmitting them to destination using different paths while at the same time keeping tracks or maintaining an orderliness of the units for proper and correct reassembling of the units to get the original message back. Packet switching is generally used in Internet data transmmission where we send data without minding if the link is free or not as far as we are connected and the pieces of information that we sent are then split into smaller units and then sent in packets, with each packets switched through different data channel most times and with no loss at the end. The main advantage of packet-switching is that it permits â€Å"statistical multiplexing† on the communications lines. The packets from many different sources can share a line, allowing for very efficient use of the fixed capacity. With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto the network on a first-come, first-served basis. If the network becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or discarded (â€Å"dropped†)[6]. Advantages: 1. Since packet are typically short, the communication links between the nodes are only allocated to transferring a single message for a short period of time while transmitting each packet. Longer messages require a series of packets to be sent but do not require the link to be dedicated between the transmission of each packet. The implication is that packets belonging to other messages may be sent between the packets of the message being sent from one node to other node. This provides a much fairer sharing of the resources of each of the links. 2. The ability to do statistical multiplexing which can exploit the inherent â€Å"burstiness† in many data applications and thereby enable sharing of the network resources more efficiently among multiple data streams is a major advantage. 3. Pipelining†- This simultaneous use of communications links represents a gain in effieciency, the total delay for transmission across a packet network may be considerebly less than for message switching, despite the inclusion of a header in each packet rather than in each message. Disadvantages: 1. Packets arriving in wrong order. 2. Under heavy use there can be delay. 3. Protocols are needed for a reliable transfer. 4. Not so good for some types data streams. Real-time video streams can lose frames due to the way p ackets arrive out of sequence[7]. ) PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS Circuit Switching In circuit switching, a unique connection is used to move data between the two end user[8]. â€Å"Circuit-Switched type networks† are most commonly portions of the ubiquitous telephone networks to which we are all accustomed. In these networks, which generally transmit voice or data, a pribate transmission path is established between any pair or group of users attempting to communicate and is held as long as transmission is required. Telephone networks are typically circuit switched, because voice traffic requires the consistent timing of a single, dedicated physical path to keep a constant delay on the circuit. Figure 2: Example of circuit switching Figure 3: Public circuit switching network Subcribers: The device that attach to the network. Subscriber loop: The link between the subscriber and the network. Exchanges: The switching centers in the network. End office: The switching center that directly supports subscribers. Trunks: The branches between exchanges. They carry multiple voice-frequency circuit using either FDM or synchronous TDM. Figure 4: Circuit establishment Basic performance equation for a single link in a circuit-switched network: Let’s consider a system with N circuits on a single link, with customers arriving according to a Poisson process at rate ? customers per second, and with successful customers having a mean holding time of h seconds, distributed as a negative exponential distribution with parameter ? = 1/h. If a customer attempting a new call finds all the circuits busy, there are no waiting places, so we’ll assume that the customer just goes away and forgets about making the call. Define the state of our system by the random variable K, where K represents the number of customers currently in the system, then K can take on any integer value in the range from 0 to N. With these assumptions, our model is simply a state-dependent queue, with arrival rate (independent of the state), and service rate i when the system is in state K=i. This is known as an M/M/N/N queue: Markovian arrivals, Markovian service time, N servers, and a maximum of N customers in the system. We can draw the following Markov chain diagram to represent the system. When there are I customers the service rate is i , which is due to the fact that there are i customers, each with a service rate ? , so the total service rate is i. Figure 5: Markov chain diagram Under conditions of statistical equilibrium, the solution is: pi=AiN! j=0NAjj! Observe that this is simply a truncated Poisson distribution and also the result depends on the traffic A, and not the specific values of ? and ?. To establish a path in circuit switching three consecutive phases are required: 1. Connection establishment. 2. Data transfer. 3. Connection teardown. Elements of a circuit-switch node (Figure 6): * Digital Switch: Provides a trasnparent signal path between any pair of attached devices. * Control Unit: Establishes, maintains and tears down connections. * Network Interface: Functions and hardware needed to connect digital and analog terminals and trunk lines. Figure 6: Circuit switch element Packet Switching In packet switching, data are broken into packets of fixed or variable size, depending on the protocol used. The performance of packet switching is called best effort performance. If you transmit from sender to receiver, all the network will do its best to get the packet to the other end as fast as possible, but there are no guarantees on how fast that packet will arrive. Figure 7: Example of packet switching Packet switching is used to optimize the use of the channel capacity available in digital telecommunication networks such as computer networks, to minimize the transmission latency, the time it takes for data to pass across the network. It is also used to increase robustness of communication. These layers are introduced to break down the complexity of communications. The top layer (layer 7) is the layer at user level. As the layers go down, they get increasingly primitive. Layer is most primitive from as it is just binary numbers prepared to be transmit to the end node. Seven layers of open systems interconnection models are shown in table 1[7]: Layer Number| Name| Description| 1| Pysical Layer| Deals with physical connection between nodes in network. | 2| Data Link Layer| Maintaining and optimising actual connection. | 3| Network Layer| Deals with communication of data on a network. | 4| Transportation Layer| Sequencing, error detection and optimisation of communication. 5| Session Layer| Controls the communication between applications running on end nodes. | 6| Presentation Layer| Format data and provides syntaxes for application. | 7| Application Layer| Contains management functions. | Table 1: Layers of open systems interconnection model Every packet contain some control information in its header, which is required for routing and other purpo ses. Figure 8: Packet data format Initially, transmission time decreases as packet size is reduced. But, as packet size is reduced and the payload part of a packet becomes comparable to the control part, transmission time increases. Figure 9: Variation of transmission time with packet size. As packet size is decreased, the transmission time reduces until it is comparable to the size of control information. There is a close relationship between packet size and transmission time as shown in Figure 9. In this case it is assumed that there is a virtual circuit from station X to Y through nodes a and b. Times required for transmission decreases as each message is divided into 2 and 5 packets. However, the transmission time increases if each message is divided into 10 packets[9]. The packet switched networks allow any host to send data to any other host without reserving the circuit. Multiple paths between a pair of sender and receiver may exist in a packet switched network. One path is selected between source and destination. Whenever the sender has data to send, it converts them into packets and forwards them to next computer or router. The router stores this packet till the output line is free. Then, this packet is transferred to next computer or router (called as hop). This way, it moves to the destination hop by hop. All the packets belonging to a transmission may or may not take the same route. The route of a packet is decided by network layer protocols. As we know there are two approaches for packet switching which are: 1. Datagram switching, 2. Virtual circuit swtiching. 1. Datagram Switching: Each packet is routed independently through network which is also called connectionless packet-switching. Datagram packet switching sends each packet along the path that is optimal at the time the packet is sent. When a packet traverses the network each intermediate station will need to determine the next hop. Routers in the internet are packet switches that operate in datagraam mode. Each packet may travel by a different path. Each different path will have a different total transmission delay (the number of hops in the path may be different, and the delay across each hop may change for different routes). Therefore, it is possible for the packets to arrive at the destination in a different order from the order in which they were sent[10]. Figure 10: Datagram packet switching Figure 11: Delay in datagram packet switching There are three primary types of datagram packet switches: * Store and forward: Buffers data until the entire packet is received and checked for errors. This prevents corrupted packets from propagating throughout the network but increases switching delay. * Fragment free: Filters out most error packets but doesn’t necessarily prevent the propagation of errors throughout the network. It offers faster switching speeds and lower delay than store-and-forward mode. * Cut through: Does not filter errors; it switches packets at the highest throughput, offering the least forwarding delay. 2. Virtual Circuit Switching: Virtual circuit packet switching (VC-switching) is a packet switching technique which merges datagram packet switching and circuit switching to extract both of their advantages. VC switching is a variation of datagram packet switching where packets flow on so-called logical circuits for which no physical resources like frequencies or time slots are allocated shown in Figure 12. Each packet carries a circuit identifier, which is local to a link and updated by each switch on the path of the packet from its source to its destination[10]. A virtual circuit is defined by the sequence of the mappings between a link taken by packets and the circuit identifier packets carry on this link. In VC-switching, routing is performed at circuit establishment time to keep packet forwarding fast. Other advantages of VC-switching include the traffic engineering capability of circuit switching, and the resources usage efficiency of datagram packet switching. Nevertheless, a main issue of VC-Switched networks is the behavior on a topology change. As opposed to Datagram Packet Switched networks which automatically recompute routing tables on a topology change like a link failure, in VC-switching all virtual circuits that pass through a failed link are interrupted. Hence, rerouting in VC-switching relies on traffic engineering techniques[6]. Figure 12: Virtual circuit packet switching Figure 13: Delay on packets in virtual-packet switching 5) APPLICATION OF CIRCUIT AND PACKET SWITCHING Circuit Switching 1. Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) The plain old telephone system (POTS) is the largest circuit switched network. The original  GSM  network is also circuit switched. Prior to the existence of new types of networks, all communication systems had to be built based on the existing telecommunications facilities, which were largely oriented to what the common carriers refer to as plain old telephone service, known as POTS. Consequently, even today, in order to use POTS for data communications, it is necessary to use a modem to convert the data to a form suitable for voice-transmission media. The data transmission rate that can be obtained over a POTS connection is typically less than 64 Kbps. These rates are adequate for text and audio transmission. However, they are not suf? cient for good quality video transmission in real-time. 2. Switched 56 Service Switched 56 service is a dial-up digital service provided by local and long distance telephone companies. For a connection, a data service unit/data channel unit (DSU/CSU) is used instead of a modem. Switched 56 service uses a 64 Kbps channel, but one bit per byte is used for band signaling, leaving 56 Kbps for data. This service allows the transmission of information over one or two twisted cable pairs to multiple points at a data rate of 56 Kpbs. 3. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) The ISDN was designed in the 1980s to offer end-to-end digital connectivity, while providing the required QoS with data rates in the range of Kbps to Mbps over switched connections. In order to provide even higher data rates, the original ISDN was extended to broadband ISDN (BISDN) (Martin, 1985). The ISDN services are provided to users as ISDN interfaces, each comprising a number of ISDN channels. Using 64-Kbps channels, called bearer or B channels, ISDN provides access to the digital network. ISDN provides lower error rate compared to typical voiceband modems and a relatively high bandwidth data channel[11]. Packet Switching 1. VOIP It is becoming increasingly accepted to transmit delay sensitive data through a packet switched network (rather than circuit switched). There are protocols that can create a virtually real-time environment – which, for voice conversations, is sufficient. Voice over IP is essentially a voice signal encoded into a digital format, being sent through a packet switched network (or possibly any other network) using the Internet Protocol (IP). Over recent years there have been standards developed and supported by major companies including ITU-T H. 323. VOIP has a long way to evolve before it is used as widespread as circuit switched networks, but it is well on its way. 2. IPv6 The current protocol that is employed almost everywhere IP (IPv4) has come to the end of its useful life. This is mainly because it has run out of addresses to uniquely identify every non-private computer in the world. IPv6 has been deigned to be more efficient than IPv4 and solve the addressing problems that we face at present. Ipv6 will use 128 bits to address nodes, which provides 2128possibilities (roughly3. 4? 1038). It will incorporate a special ‘option mechanism’ to store optional headers in the transport layer (to maximize efficiency by reducing required space). Finally, Ipv6 will have support for resource allocation, allowing packets to be part of a ‘traffic flow’ which will provide better communication of data such as video/voice streams [VOIP]. 6) CONCLUSION In large networks there might be multiple paths  linking sender and receiver. Information may be switched as it travels through various communication channels. Data networks can be classified as using circuit-switching or packet-switching. Packet switching, which forms the basis of the Internet, is a form of statistical multiplexing in which senders divide messages into small packets. The switching centers receive the control signals, messages or conversations and forwards to the required destination, after necessary modification link amplification if necessary. In computer communication, the switching technique used is known as packet switching or message switch (store and forward switching). In telephone network the switching method used is called circuit switching. Circuit switching  is a technique that directly connects the sender and the receiver in an  unbroken path. In the modern and fast paced world, what we are looking for is efficiency, low costs and reliability and packet-switched networks seems to fulfill most of the criteria that the society is looking for. It would only be a matter of time before circuit switching becomes a thing of the past. 7) REFERENCES [1] Stallings, W. , Data and Computer Communications, 7th ed. 1999, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. [2] Notes. com, C. What is Switching. Available from: http://ecomputernotes. com/computernetworkingnotes/computer-network/what-is-switching. [3] ABC, T. , Circuit Switching. 2005. [4] Jia, S. and G. Wang. Network performance analysis of packet-switching C;sup;3;/sup; system. in TENCON ’89. Fourth IEEE Region 10 International Conference. 1989. [5] Wikipedia, Packet Switching, 2012, Wikipedia. [6] Torlak, P. M. , Telecommunication Switching and Transmission. Packet Switching and Computer Networks: UTD. [7] Heng Zheng Hann, C. Y. Y. , Fareezul Asyraf, Farhana Binti Mohamad, Fong Poh Yeee, Circuit Switching vs Packet Switching, C. Y. Y. Heng Zheng Hann, Fareezul Asyraf, Farhana Binti Mohamad, Fong Poh Yeee, Editor, Wikibooks. [8] Gebali, F. , Analysisof Computer and Communication. Switches and Routers2008, New York, USA: Springer. [9] Kharagpur, I. , Switching Techniques: Circuit Switching, CSE. [10] Notes. com, C. Datagram Packet vs. Virtual Packet. Available from: http://ecomputernotes. com/computernetworkingnotes/switching/distinguish-between-datagram-packet-switching-and-virtual-circuit-switching. [11] Dr. Farid Farahmand, D. Q. Z. , Circuit Switching. 2007. How to cite Analysis Network, Papers

War Causes Essays - Ethology, Abnormal Psychology, Aggression

War Causes Individual level factors--Ethology is study on how humans and animals are equal. They contend that humans have the instinct to fight like animals do. Fighting would come when territory is intruded upon, for example. Frustration-aggression theorists contend that an environment would frustrate a person, and then aggression comes about. State Level--The type of political system is very important. Democracies seem to be more peaceful while authoritarian/totalitarian ones are more aggressive. Free trade also plays a factor with the commercial end of a country does not want to deal with warring countries, thus making the government slow down on wars with anyone, or slow relations with these warring states. Nationalism is also a factor because it could result in ethnocentrism and aggression could result from this. Protectionism (protecting goods and services from one's own country with tariffs and government restrictions) could also lead to war. International level--Problems could result from the system in which foreign policy is conducted. This would be an anarchy system. The long cycles theory comes into play here too. A balance of power could also lead to war like in Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries.